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Transgenic fish have been developed that have improved growth, color, disease resistance, survival in cold, and body composition, and produce pharmaceutical proteins. Transgenes elicit
pleiotropic effects, some positive and some negative. In general, transgenic fish appear to have lower fitness than controls and pose little environmental risk, but this research is not fully conclusive. Transgenic zebrafish with altered coloration have been commercialized and growth hormone transgenic salmon, carp, and tilapia are near commercialization. To enhance commercialization and minimize environmental risk, additional technologies such as transgenic sterilization need to be developed. Genomic research has produced an abundance of molecular genetic information including many genes for consideration for gene transfer, highly regulated gene promoters, and knowledge about their expression and function. Functional genomics analysis should be applied in the future to enhance the capacity and versatility of transgenic technology.