S-1000
Regional Project
Animal Manure
and Waste Utilization, Treatment and Nuisance Avoidance for a Sustainable
Agriculture
2003 Station
Reports
EXPERIMENT STATION AND PRINCIPAL
LEADERS: José R. Bicudo, Richard Gates (Biosystems & Agricultural Engineering)
Anthony Pescatore, Laurie Lawrence (Animal Sciences)
Research Associates: Anshu Singh, Ken Casey (Biosystems & Agricultural
Engineering)
University of Kentucky
Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering
2003 Annual Report of Cooperative Regional Project
PROJECT: S-1000 Animal manure and waste utilization, treatment, and nuisance
avoidance for a sustainable agriculture
REPORTING PERIOD: September 1, 2002 – August 1, 2003
PROGRESS OF WORK AND PRINCIPAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS:
Objective 1: Develop management tools, strategies and systems for land
application of animal manures and effluents that optimize efficient, environmentally
friendly utilization of nutrients and are compatible with sustained land
and water quality
1. Vertical water movement through geotextile and gravel
pads in high livestock traffic areas
Geotextile and gravel pads offer a low-cost alternative to concrete for providing
all-weather surfaces for cattle and vehicle traffic, and are used in many
beef and dairy facilities to minimize mud problems in heavy traffic areas.
A pilot-scale study was conducted to determine the effect of different geotextile
and gravel layer combinations on the vertical movement of water and contaminants
(total solids and chemical oxygen demand) from beef cattle manure. Thirty-four
tanks (0.6 m diameter) were constructed to accommodate 16 different geotextile
and gravel pad combinations. Treatments were replicated and compared to a
control using the base treatment specified in the Kentucky Natural Resources
and Conservation Service guidelines. Different amounts of beef lot manure
(1, 2.5 and 5 kg) were added to the top of each tank. Rainfall was simulated
at 25, 50, and 100-mm depths using nozzles that delivered water in a uniform
pattern to the surface of the pads. The amount of leachate collected was
measured and analyzed for pH, electrical conductivity, total solids, and
chemical oxygen demand. Two possible pad combinations gave the best reductions
in total solids and chemical oxygen demand masses: (i) woven geotextile +
10-cm gravel + 5-cm dense grade aggregate; and (ii) woven geotextile + geoweb
+ 10-cm dense grade aggregate. The type of geotextile as well as the amount
of manure and rainfall depth combination significantly affected (p-value
< 0.05) both total solids and chemical oxygen demand masses. Statistical
analyses of fecal bacteria and nutrient data is currently being performed
to further evaluate pad combinations and potential environmental impacts.
Larger pads (6 x 2.4 m) were constructed this summer at a UK Research Farm
with different combinations of geotextile and gravel layers to evaluate runoff
and infiltration through the pads using simulated rainfall and beef cattle
manure. Results will be available in the spring of 2004.
2. Construction of stabilized fly ash pads for livestock
feeding areas
Muddy conditions at livestock operations can have detrimental effects on
both beef and dairy cattle performance. Animals spend considerable amounts
of energy to move through mud resulting in higher feed costs and reduced
weight gain by livestock. One way to avoid muddy conditions and minimize
contamination of ground and surface water when manure accumulates on the
ground is to build an all-weather surface for cattle and vehicle traffic.
All-weather surfaces are generally built with concrete or asphalt, and often
with geotextile and gravel. Research previously conducted at Ohio State University
has shown that construction of livestock feeding pads using Flue Gas Desulfurization
(FGD) material can be an inexpensive and reliable alternative to concrete
and asphalt. More recently, Ohio State University reported on the use of
FGD material as low permeability liners for animal waste storage. Information
on the use of fly ash (not FGD) for the construction of feeding and hay storage
pads is very limited. Type F fly ash, for example, derived from the combustion
of bituminous coal at power plants is a by-product that is typically disposed
in landfills at a significant cost.
The goals of this project are to transfer and promote the knowledge that
will be essential to reduce mud problems in livestock farms and protect water
quality while enhancing animal well being. We have so far identified optimum
combinations of bottom ash/fly ash and Portland cement, and bottom ash/fly
ash and quicklime and hydrated lime through standardized strength testing
in collaboration with the Department of Civil Engineering at UK. A quantitative
approach to construction quality assurance (CQA) testing of compacted fly
ash-cement pads was also developed. Two pads (6 x 2.4 m) were built at a
UK Research Farm, one with a Portland cement-fly ash mixture, and another
with Hydrated lime-fly ash mixture, to evaluate runoff and infiltration through
the pads using simulated rainfall and beef cattle manure. Results of these
tests will be available in the spring of 2004.
3. Broiler litter sampling and characterization
Broiler litter is one of the richest sources of nitrogen, phosphorus, potash
and micronutrients, and it can be an excellent fertilizer for crops and forages.
However, litter nutrient concentrations may vary drastically among poultry
houses and among different areas in the same house. Factors affecting nutrient
content of broiler litter include bird type, feed composition, bird distribution
in the building, and building management factors such as cleanout frequency,
type of waterer, decaking management, and the use of litter additives. The
nutrient content of the litter may also be dependent on the proximity of
feeders and waterers to the sampling point. Litter sampled from brooding
areas may be different from non-brooding areas. The unpredictability of
nutrient content from house to house and point to point within a broiler
house makes accurate sampling and nutrient testing essential if poultry litter
is to be used as a fertilizer. Along with the sampling location, sampling
method also plays a very important role in determining the nutrient content
of the litter. Currently, the trench method is the most commonly used
method for sampling broiler litter. But in the case of dry litter it is very
difficult to obtain an intact sample using a shovel. It is also difficult
to sample litter using the trench method when the birds are in the house.
Alternatively, litter can be sampled using a point or random walk method.
The objectives of this experiment was to determine (i) how nutrient concentrations
in broiler litter differ between brooding and non-brooding areas in the production
unit; (ii) changes in nutrient concentration in broiler litter with time;
and (iii) the effect of sampling methodology on the nutrient content of broiler
litter.
Preliminary statistical analysis of the data suggests a significant difference
(p-value > 0.05) in the total nitrogen content between brooding and non-brooding
areas signifying the need of accuracy while sampling a broiler house. On
the other hand, there was no significant difference in the nutrient content
between the trench and point sampling methods (p-value > 0.05). The results
indicate that the trench method can be replaced by the point sampling/random
walk method in poultry houses with dry litter, making it easy to collect
samples when birds are present. Results of the changes in the nutrient concentration
in the litter with time will be available in the spring of 2004.
4. Horse manure characteristics
This was a joint effort of KY and PA. The purpose of this study was to summarize
available information on nutrient excretion by horses from as many sources
as possible. Values for amounts and characteristics of fresh manure (feces
and urine, as excreted) were obtained from published nutrition study values
for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). Only data from horses
18 months of age or older were used. Data were separated into values obtained
from non-working (sedentary) and working (exercised) horses. There were insufficient
data on growing horses, pregnant mares and lactating mares to evaluate nutrient
excretion in these groups. Estimates of dry matter excretion and total manure
were calculated using information from the National Research Council "Nutrient
Requirements of Horses" and other sources. Equations for estimating N, P,
and K excretion were developed from studies reporting nutrient intake and
nutrient excretion on a body weight basis. Representative values were calculated
using the equations for estimating nutrient excretion for horses weighing
400 to 600 kg.
5. Dairy waste utilization management tool development
and demonstration
Nutrient management depends on knowing the fertilizer value of the effluent
in a dairy waste holding pond. When a holding pond is installed in cooperation
with the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), a waste utilization
plan must be developed, and nutrient management is an important component
of this plan. Since 1991, approximately 87 dairy effluent holding ponds have
been installed in Mammoth Cave area of Kentucky. There are approximately
17 other waste ponds that had already been installed by 1991. These ponds
are high solids-liquid waste structures that contain dairy manure, milking
parlor wastewater and rainwater runoff from confinement floors and loafing
areas. Waste holding ponds must be pumped periodically, and effluent is required
to be used on cropland. The effluent is to be spread or injected in such
a manner that the fertilizer nutrients do not exceed the agronomic levels
used by crops and no runoff occurs. This requires that the nitrogen and phosphorus
content of the dairy waste slurry be known. Soil plant available phosphorus
also needs to be known so that the proper levels of waste slurry can be applied.
Rapid tests are being used to develop calibration curves for Mammoth Cave
area dairies in KY. Rapid or quick tests are less accurate than standard
laboratory analyses, but are useful as a manure utilization tool. Developing
calibrations specific to individual farms or to regions in which common practices
are used could minimize a significant portion of the variation. Electrical
conductivity and Agros N meter are used to obtain an estimate of the ammonium
nitrogen. A hydrometer is used to obtain an estimate of the total solids
and phosphorus contents. Analysis usually takes less than ten minutes, and
the equipment is relatively simple to use. Standard laboratory analyses are
run in order to develop calibration curves. Manure samples were collected
in the fall of 2002, spring and summer of 2003. A total of 112 samples were
collected from 34 different farms located in four counties in the Mammoth
Cave area. Several sampling strategies are being evaluated as well. Results
will be available in the spring of 2004. Objective 2: Develop methodology, technology, and management practices
to reduce odors, gases, airborne microflora, particulate matter, and other
airborne emissions from animal production systems.
1. NH3 Emission from broiler houses
This is a joint effort from University of Kentucky, Iowa State University
and Penn State University. There is a limited amount of scientific estimates
of ammonia emissions from U.S. poultry facilities despite the interest of
agencies and concerned citizen groups in mitigating ammonia emission from
livestock facilities. Baseline data on aerial emissions from an assortment
of livestock and poultry facilities that are operated under the variety of
management styles used in the U.S. will help establish the inventory of ammonia
sources. Reasonable estimates of ammonia emissions are needed by the
poultry industry so that they can participate in discussions about their
industry’s impact on local and regional air quality. The influence of common
management strategies and practical means of reducing ammonia (NH3) emissions
are under study. Measurement of ammonia emissions from 11 broiler houses
in Kentucky and Pennsylvania is being conducted. Electro-chemical sensors
were used to determine ammonia levels. Ventilation rates are estimated by
monitoring runtime of the ventilation fans whose airflow rates were calibrated
with a portable anemometer array, also known as the Fan Assessment Numeration
System (FANS). Ammonia emission rates ranged from 0 to 0.92 g NH3 bird-1
d-1 or, expressed in terms of 500 kg animal units (AU), 0 to 607 g NH3 AU-1
d-1 during cold weather conditions. Bird age ranged from 1 to 23 days old.
There was high variability for emission rates among the houses, even for
houses on the same farm. Day to day variability (consecutive days)
was less than house-to-house variability for the same time period.
There can be better interpretation of the wide range of emissions rates once
characteristics of the litter, flock, and house management are understood.
Additional measurements were conducted during spring and summer conditions,
but results are not available yet.
2. Use of geotextile covers to reduce odor and gas emissions
from swine manure storages
University of Minnesota and University of Kentucky collaborated in this project.
Odor, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), and volatile organic compounds
(VOC, GC/MS analytes) were measured between May and October 2000, and between
April and October 2001 at sites representing three different swine production
facilities (8000-head nursery, 2000-head finishing, and 3000-head finishing)
in southwestern Minnesota. For each facility type, two farms were tested.
The paired farms had similar manure storage ponds, production phases, herd
sizes, genetics, and diet formulations. A manure storage pond from each pair
of farms was selected as treatment (with geotextile cover, Biocap), and the
other as control (without cover). Results showed reductions in odor, H2S,
and NH3 flux rates due to the geotextile cover, but performance in reducing
odor and H2S deteriorated during the second year of the study. No significant
differences in VOC (GC/MS analytes) emissions from covered and non-covered
manure storage ponds were observed during the two-year study. Analysis of
ambient H2S data suggested the covers were effective in reducing ambient
H2S concentrations near manure storage ponds located at the two finishing
units. Odor and gaseous flux rates were poorly correlated with relevant manure
parameters (NH3-N, sulfides, and VOC). WORK PLANNED FOR NEXT YEAR:
1. Runoff and infiltration issues related to geotextile-gravel
and stabilized fly-ash pads
Additional experiments using 2.4 x 6.0 m pads and rainfall simulations will
be conducted in the spring of 2004. Samples from fly-ash pads will be tested
for strength after a freeze-thaw cycle. The objective is to determine potential
clogging of pore spaces in geotextile-gravel pads, thus generating less leachate
through the pad, and potential cracking of stabilized fly ash pads, which
could result in the generation of leachate from those pads. We anticipate
collaboration with ARS – Clay Center, NE in this project.
2. Broiler litter sampling and characterization
Experimental data collected in 2002 and 2003 will be statistically analyzed.
Results will be presented in 2004 in the form of conference proceedings,
extension publications and refereed journals.
3. Using worms for layer manure and broiler litter composting
Earthworms have high protein content along with some essential amino acids.
Excess worms are usually produced during vermicomposting processes. These
worms can potentially be used as chicken feed after pre-treatment and disinfection.
A pilot scale study has been planned to vermicompost layer manure and broiler
litter. Both the layer manure and broiler litter will be mixed with straw
to obtain C:N ratios of 20:1, 25:1 and 30:1. Treatments will be replicated
and compared to a control with either layer manure or broiler litter only.
The substrate will be allowed to vermicompost 8-10 weeks. Compost will be
analyzed periodically for organic matter, nutrients, and bacterial indicators.
A portion of earthworms used in vermicomposting will be processed using thermal
processes (heating and/or freeze drying) for disinfection purposes. Processed
earthworms will be analyzed for protein content and bacterial indicators.
4. Dairy waste utilization management tool development
and demonstration
Development of calibration curves for the use of rapid tests. We are also
planning to develop a video on manure storage construction, manure sampling,
use of rapid tests, and land application of manure. The video would be used
in educational programs directed to producers, extension personnel, and local
and state government officials. Overall results of this project will be presented
in 2004 in the form of conference proceedings, extension publications and
refereed journals.
5. NH3 Emission from broiler houses
Depending on funding availability, we plan to continue monitoring ammonia
from poultry houses and add other parameters including nitrous oxide and
dust. We would also like to develop a process-based model for nutrient flows
into and out of broiler houses and determine the percent contributions to
nutrient loss by the individual components of mass balances. COLLABORATIONS
MN and KY collaborated on the project related to the evaluation of geotextile
covers for manure storages and continue to pursue joint work in the emissions
and treatment processes areas. KY and PA collaborated on the characterization
of horse manure project. IA, PA, and KY currently collaborate on a large
project related to emissions of ammonia from poultry houses. We hope to be
able to continue this project with additional NRI funding, include collaboration
from IL, and monitor dust from poultry houses. KY and NE should start collaborating
on the project related to the use of fly ash pads in feeding areas. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED OR MANUSCRIPTS
APPROVED DURING THE YEAR
Refereed
1. Bicudo, J.R., Clanton, C.J., Schmidt, D.R., Powers, W.J., Jacobson,
L.D., and Tengman, C.L. (2003). Geotextile covers to reduce odor and gas
emissions from swine manure storage ponds. Applied Engineering in Agriculture,
accepted for publication.
2. Bicudo, J.R. and Goyal, S.M. (2003). Pathogens and manure management systems
– a review. Environmental Technology, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 115-130.
Conferences and Proceedings
1. Bicudo, J.R., Clanton, C.J., Schmidt, D.R., Tengman, C.L. and Jacobson,
L.D. (2003). Odor, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia flux rates from swine manure
in southwest Minnesota. Procs. of the International Symposium on Gaseous
and Odour Emissions from Animal Production Facilities, CIGR, June 1-4, Horsens,
Denmark, pp. 417-425.
2. Bicudo, J.R., Schmidt, D.R., Gay, S.W., Gates, R.S., Jacobson, L.D., and
Hoff, S.J. (2003). Odor emissions from livestock and poultry production/waste
management systems. Procs. of the 2003 Spring Specialty Conference on Agricultural
Hydrology and Water Quality, AWRA, May 12-14, Kansas City, MO (on CD-ROM).
3. Bicudo, J.R., Janni, K.A., Jacobson, L.D., and Schmidt, D.R. (2003). Odor
and hydrogen sulfide emission from a dairy manure storage. Procs. of the
5th International Dairy Housing Conference (K.A. Janni, ed.), January 29-31,
Fort Worth, TX, pp. 368-375.
4. Bicudo, J.R., Singh, A., Casey, K.D., Gates, R.S., Sikora, F., Pescatore,
A.J. and Ford, M. (2003). Built-up litter characteristics and ammonia emission
from broiler houses. Presented at the Southern Region Extension Engineers
and Housing Specialists Biennial Workshop, June 9-12, Chattanooga, TN.
5. Bicudo, J.R., Goode, G.L., Workman, S.R. and Turner, L.W. (2003). Drainage
water quality from geotextile and gravel pads used in heavy livestock traffic
areas. Presented at Kentucky Water Resources Annual Symposium, February 20,
Lexington, KY.
6. Lawrence, L., Bicudo, J.R., Davis, J., and Wheeler, E. (2003). Relationships
between intake and excretion for nitrogen and phosphorus in horses. Procs.
of the Equine Nutrition and Physiology Symposium, June 4-7, East Lansing,
MI, p.307.
7. Bicudo, J.R., Clanton, C.J., Schmidt, D.R., Jacobson, L.D., Powers, W.,
and Tengman, C.L. (2003). Effectiveness of geotextile covers to reduce emissions
from manure storage structures. American Society of Animal Science – Midwestern
Section, American Dairy Science Association – Midwest Branch, March 17-19,
Des Moines, IA, Abstract No. 237, p. 59.
8. Bicudo, J.R., Goode, G.L., Workman, S.R. and Turner, L.W. (2003). Drainage
water quality from geotextile and gravel pads used in heavy livestock traffic
areas. Kentucky Water Resources Annual Symposium, February 20, Lexington,
KY, pp. 41-42.
9. Casey, K.D., R.S. Gates, E.F. Wheeler, J.S. Zajaczkowski, P.A. Topper,
H. Xin, and Y. Liang. 2003. Ammonia Emissions from Broiler Houses in Kentucky
during Winter. International Symposium on Gaseous and Odour Emissions from
Animal Production Facilities, 1-4 June. Horsens, Jutland, Denmark.
10. Liang, Y., H. Xin, A. Tanaka, S.H. Lee, H. Li, E.F. Wheeler, R.S. Gates,
J.S. Zajaczkowski, P.A. Topper and K.D. Casey. 2003. Ammonia Emissions from
Layer Houses in Iowa. International Symposium on Gaseous and Odour Emissions
from Animal Production Facilities, 1-4 June. Horsens, Jutland, Denmark.
11. Wheeler, E.F., J.S. Zajaczkowski, P.A. Topper, R.S. Gates, H. Xin, K.D.
Casey and Y. Liang. 2003. Ammonia Emissions from Broiler Houses in Pennsylvania
during Cold Weather. International Symposium on Gaseous and Odour Emissions
from Animal Production Facilities, 1-4 June. Horsens, Jutland, Denmark.
12. Bicudo, J.R. (2002). Use of quick tests to determine the nutrient content
of dairy manure during agitation and pumping. 2002 Kentucky Nonpoint Source
Conference, September 23, 2002, Lake Barkley State Resort Park, Cadiz, KY,
p.12.
13. Bicudo, J.R., Lawrence, L., and Wheeler, E. (2002). Horse manure production
and composition. Journal of Animal Science 80, Suppl. 1/Journal of Dairy
Science 85, Suppl.1, Abstract No. 548, p. 137.
14. Bicudo, J.R., Tengman, C.L., Schmidt, D.R., and Jacobson, L.D. (2002).
Ambient H2S concentrations near swine barns and manure storages. 2002 ASAE
Annual International Meeting / CIGR XV World Congress, July 28-31, Chicago,
IL, Paper No. 024059, ASAE, 2950 Niles Road, St. Joseph, MI (on CD-ROM).
15. Bicudo, J.R., Schmidt, D.R., Clanton, C.J., Powers, W., Tengman, C.L.,
and Jacobson, L.D. (2002). A two-year study of the effectiveness of geotextile
covers to reduce odor and gas emissions from manure storages. 2002 ASAE Annual
International Meeting / CIGR XV World Congress, July 28-31, Chicago, IL,
Paper No. 024195, ASAE, 2950 Niles Road, St. Joseph, MI (on CD-ROM).
16. Schmidt, D.R. and Bicudo, J.R. (2002). Using a wind tunnel to determine
odor and gas fluxes from manure surfaces. 2002 ASAE Annual International
Meeting / CIGR XV World Congress, July 28-31, Chicago, IL, Paper No. 024083,
ASAE, 2950 Niles Road, St. Joseph, MI (on CD-ROM).
17. Bicudo, J.R., Schmidt, D.R., Powers, W., Zahn, J.A., Tengman, C.L., Clanton,
C.J., and Jacobson, L.D. (2002). Odor and VOC emissions from swine manure
storages. Procs. of Odors and Toxic Air Emissions 2002 (on CD-ROM), WEF,
April 28-May 1, Albuquerque, NM.